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Area Studies / Russia |
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Historical Overview |
[ Kievan Russia | Mongol Rule | Romanov Dynasty | Civil War | Communist Rule Before WWII | World War II | Communist Rule After WII | Rise of the Russian Federation | Vocabulary | Quiz | Sources Used | Further Study ]
| Basic Facts |
| Ethnic Groups |
| Gestures & Taboos |
| Historical Overview |
| Russian Orthodox Religious History |
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"If we hope to understand anything of this extraordinary country’s present and possible future, it is of great importance to delve, as far as we may, into
her past."
-- Edward Rutherford, Russka, The Novel of Russia
"You must know that there is nothing higher and stronger and more wholesome and good for life in the future than some good memory, especially a memory of
childhood, of home."
-- Fydor Dostoyevsky, The Brothers Karamazov, p. 938
In A.D. 862, warrior traders, related to the Vikings, and known as Varangians (vah-RAN-jee-ahns), received an invitation from the people of Novgorod (NAHV-gah-raht, a city 200 km south of present day St. Petersburg) to rule their area. Prince Rurik (ROOR-ik) accepted, establishing a lineage which ruled Russia for some 700 years. His successor Oleg took over Kiev which became the center of Rus (another name for Varangian) rule. During this period, loosely allied city-states gathered under the leadership of the Prince of Kiev (KEE-ef). A class society developed, comprised of princes, boyars (boo-YAHR, aristocracy), free peasants and slaves
(vlah-DEE-mir, @956-1015) This great-grandson of Rurik, an outstanding military leader, ruled Kiev from 980-1015. Under his leadership, Eastern Orthodox Christianity became the official religion of Russia.
a. Russian Orthodox Eastern Christianity
Tradition relates that Vladimir had spiritual yearnings but did not know which faith to embrace. In 987, he sent envoys to investigate various religions. They rejected Islam because of prohibitions against wine, a drink considered by Vladimir the "chief pleasure of the Russians." Christianity in Germany and Rome, though appealing, lacked services filled with sufficient beauty. On coming home via Constantinople, the envoys stopped at the Eastern Orthodox Cathedral of Hagia Sophia. They reported, "We did not know whether this was heaven or earth. We never saw such splendor or beauty. We cannot tell you what it was like; except that we are sure that God dwells there among men, and that this is the best form of
worship. The beauty is unforgettable." Vladimir, won over by their findings, was baptized in the Orthodox faith, along with his subjects, thus beginning the long linkage of Orthodoxy with Russia.
b. Early Impact of Orthodox Eastern Christianity
Changes brought by introduction of the Orthodox Eastern faith include:
(1) Byzantine culture Priests from Constantinople introduced use of the Cyrillic (suh-RIL-lik) alphabet, a creation of two Byzantine missionaries, St. Cyril (SIR-ahl) and St. Methodius (mah-THOH-dee-ahs). Many consider the translation of the four gospels by these two saints into the Slavic language (known today as Old Church Slavonic) to be the sole reason for the creation of a new alphabet
(2) Schools In addition to religious studies, reading and writing flourished in schools opened for sons of boyars and priests. Early Russian literature developed in these institutions.
(3) Arts Domed roofed stone churches, mosaics and icons entered the culture. Distinct Russian adaptations (onion-shaped domes) soon became commonplace.
(4) Power in the ruler Since in Orthodoxy, all power comes from God, to disobey the ruler--God’s elected one--was to sin. The ruler’s power thus received divine approval. The church also began to give Kievan Russians a national identity. Their shared Orthodox Christian belief and practice would provide support and stability for the Russian peoples during the upheavals, strife and stability of centuries to come.
(yuh-ruh-SLUHF, ruled from 1036-1054) One of Vladimir’s 12 sons, Iaroslav, contributed to the cultural development of Russia. His own thirst for education prompted establishment of a large library at Kiev. Under Iaroslav, Byzantine scholars translated Greek classics into Russian. Trade schools in masonry, pottery and shipbuilding came into being. Iaroslav also was responsible for the first legal code which combined Slavic custom with Roman law.
With Iaroslav’s death, Kievan Russian divided into five principalities--one for each of his sons. Ensuing civil war amongst these principalities weakened the government of Kiev. Further deterioration occurred with the fall of Constantinople to Crusaders (A.D. 1204), hindering Byzantine trade. Nomad attacks against Russian merchant fleets also inhibited trade and Kievan economic/political development.
In the early 1200s, Mongol invaders (nomad warriors from central Asia)--under Genghis Khan and his grandson Batu Khan--conquered much of Kievan Rus. In a brutal and terrifying manner, Kiev--at the time an equal of Paris with its 80,000 people--was looted and burned. Barely 200 structures remained standing.
Mongol rule over Russia lasted almost 250 years (@1240-1480). Though Russians were allowed to keep their language and customs, learning and craftsmanship declined. The Eastern Orthodox Church gained in prestige, fostering strong nationalist feelings, but turned increasingly inward. Ritual and ceremony, rather than behavior, became primary. In addition, the Russian people became more suspicious of foreign ideas and ways. Mongol isolation kept the European Renaissance from making headway. Moscow gradually became the chief city-state. In 1380, Dimitri Donskoy, with an army of 150,000 men, defeated Mongol hordes, though half his soldiers were killed. Dimitri replaced wooden and earthen walls surrounding Moscow with a kremlin (KREM-lin), or fortress, made of stone. This victory temporarily interrupted Mongol rule.
Founded the second Russian state. Through his marriage to Zoe (Sophia), a niece of the Byzantine emperor, he forged great personal power. Ivan III assumed the title of autocrat, with complete power over his subjects. He also ascribed to himself the name tzar (zahr)--a ruler who owes allegiance to no one. By 1480, he warned the dispersed Mongols to leave his peoples alone and effectively eliminated their power. Under Ivan III, ties between the Orthodox Eastern Church and tzar also were strengthened. Moscow became the "Third Rome" since Rome early on fell to corruption and the second Rome (Constantinople) was conquered by Turkish armies (1453).
During the first 27 years of Ivan IV’s reign, his policies won the love of the Russian people. However, after the death of his wife, who was a member of the Romanov (ROH-mah-nohf) family, he turned into an unpredictable, tyrannical leader. Ivan IV established a standing army and introduced the secret police.
The harsh ruling Boris Godunov (GOD-enohf, 1552-1605), a wealthy nobleman elected tzar after no male heir was born to Ivan IV’s son, brought to an end the Rurick dynasty. Famine, plague, civil unrest (including an uprising by peasants and Cossacks), and the capture of Moscow byPolish and Lithuanian forces were indicative of the societal chaos during this time of troubles.
In 1612, the Russian peoples--boyars, Cossacks, priests and peasants--rallied against Polish invaders of Moscow. A gathered assembly of nobles elected Mikhail Romanov, a relative of Ivan IV’s wife, as tzar, establishing a dynasty which lasted for more than 300 years (until 1917). Tzar Mikhail and his son Alexis I restored law and order to the Russian state. Under their leadership, peasants became serfs--bound to the land with no legal rights
An opening to the West, begun under Vladimir I and Iaroslav the Wise, reemerged with Peter I’s becoming tzar. Eight years into his reign, Peter visited Western Europe for 18 months. Under an assumed name, in the disguise of a sailor, he worked in shipyards of Holland and England, learning map making, navigation and gunnery. On his return, Peter determined to make Russia a modern nation.
a. Reforms
Peter I introduced Western culture, technology, military methods and economic policy. He reduced the power of the Russian Orthodox Church, incorporating it into the administrative infrastructure of the country. A Holy Governing Synod ran church affairs rather than a patriarch. Peter I desired to free his people from "Asiatic customs." Consequently, nobles cut off their long beards, educated their sons
prior to marriage, and learned to speak French or German. For women, restrictions such as seclusion and wearing of veils in public were abandoned.
b. Foreign policy
Procuring warm-water ports became a focus of foreign policy. The Great Northern War of 1700-1721 extended Russia’s territory along the Baltic coast, including Estonia and Latvia.
c. St. Petersburg
Desiring to create a Russian "window to Europe," Peter I assigned peasants to build a city, patterned after some of the beautiful baroque capitals of Europe. At times cruel and overbearing, Peter I’s leadership oversaw the building of St. Petersburg, a city where both Western and Russian culture merged. Many peasant workers died in the construction process, often the result of accident, disease and lack of food
The most prominent non-Romanov ruler in a 75-year period following Peter the Great was Catherine. The princess, originally named Sophia, came from a small German
state. She became wife of Tzar Peter III, a grandson of Peter the Great. Sophia converted to the Orthodox Eastern faith, mastered Russian, and changed her name to Catherine. Catherine, with the help of lover Grigory Orlov and others, deposed Peter III and took the throne.
a. Expansion Admiring Peter the Great
Catherine followed his expansionist policies. In the south, she warred against the Ottoman Turks. In the west, she partitioned Poland along with Austria and Prussia. The Ukraine became part of Russia as well. A government policy of Russification, whereby conquered peoples were forced to adapt to Russian ways and language, became official government policy.
b. General Alexander Suvorov (ah-leh-KSAHN-dehr soo-VOH-rof, 1729-1800)
One of the Russian army leaders who led conflicts against the Turks, and who established Russian control in the Crimea (kri-MEE-ah, peninsula between the Black Sea and Sea of Azov) was General Suvorov. In addition to his exploits under Catherine, Suvorov led 18,000 Russians and 44,000 Austrians to drive out the French from northern Italy in 1789-1790. The forced retreat he led in 1799-1800 "has been considered one of the great feats of military history." Suvorov, who died shortly after at the age of 70, though an eccentric personality, used speed, push, and psychological rapport with soldiers to enable him to be "regarded as the ablest military commander Russia ever produced..." (Riasanovsky, p. 275)
Catherine’s son Alexander came to leadership in 1801, instituting several reforms. Napoleon’s invasion of Russia, however, cut short implementation of his efforts to curb societal abuse.
Alexander’s younger brother Nicholas succeeded him in 1825. A December revolt (The Decembrist Uprising) forced Nicholas I to react by clamping down on personal freedoms and individual thought. Powers of the secret police expanded. Only one religion--Orthodox Eastern Christianity--could be practiced. Siberian exile became commonplace for dissenters. Though censorship was severe, still classic authors--Pushkin, Gogol, Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoyevsky, Chekhov and Gorky-- found ways to indirectly criticize the tzarist system. Nicholas continued the dream of his brother, a cathedral to celebrate the 1812 victory over Napoleon. After choosing a site next to a wall of the Kremlin, and tearing down a church, convent and other buildings, a cathedral of five domes began to take shape. The cross on top of the highest dome stood 320 feet high. Ten thousand people could stand within the structure. After more than 50 years of construction, the Cathedral of Our Savior was consecrated in 1883. For the occasion, Tchaikovsky composed his famous 1812 Overture. Sadly, after the Communist revolution, the cathedral’s dean was imprisoned, archpriest executed, and the building blown up. Rebuilt after the Soviet collapse, the Cathedral now attracts faithful and tourist alike.
Coming into power after his father died, Alexander inherited the Russian defeat in the Crimean War. The loss of 250,000 soldiers due to lack of food and logistics, plus liberalizing events in other parts of Europe, led Alexander to push for reform. His Emancipation Edict abolished serfdom. Censorship of books, newspapers and magazines ended. Court, industry and military changes took place. Expansion also occurred to the east, with Central Asia, China territories, and frontiers near Afghanistan and Iran becoming Russian. Despite reorganization and societal improvement, unrest continued. After seven attempts on his life, Alexander died during the explosion of a terrorist bomb in 1881.
In reaction to his father’s assassination, Alexander III emphasized Russification, press censorship, increased secret police powers and Slavophile leanings. Under his rule, Jewish peoples especially became objects of persecution. Pogroms (pah-GRUM [poh-GRUM], Russian for devastation) were carried out in which Jewish citizens were murdered and their homes burned. Between 1881 and World War I, some 2 million Jewish people fled, some to Palestine, many more to the United States.
Though a good family man, possessed with charm and intelligence, during the latter part of his rule Nicholas II was out of touch with the social and economic conditions facing Russia.
a. Expansion and unrest
In the first decade of Nicholas II’s leadership, industrial expansion doubled within the country, bringing economic growth but also worker unrest. Completion of the Trans-Siberian Railroad in 1903 led to confrontation with Japan, an eight-month war which Russia lost.
b. Bloody Sunday
Workers of St. Petersburg, their wives and children took to the streets on a Sunday morning in January 1905. Their purpose was to voice concern for better working conditions and government reform. Nicholas ordered soldiers to fire on the masses, wounding hundreds. Around the country, workers formed soviets (Russian for "councils") to organize mass strikes. The country soon came to a standstill.
c. Reform
Forced to bring about change, the tzar established an assembly called the Duma (DOO-muh). Promises of land for the 12 million peasants surfaced. Such government assurances however, materialized only for a third of those petitioning to obtain land. The Duma, undermined by Nicholas and without any real power, proved ineffective.
d. World War I
Russian unpreparedness saw millions of soldiers killed, wounded or taken prisoner during World War I. Shortages at home hindered the cause. While Nicholas went to the front, he left the government in the hands of his wife Alexandra and Gregory Rasputin (ras-PYOO-tuhn), a wandering holy man. On 8 March 1917, a food riot occurred in Petrograd (formerly St. Petersburg--changed because of World War I anti-German sentiment). Termed the February Revolution (due to Julian/Gregorian calendar fluctuations), the accompanying general strike led to the abdication of Tzar Nicholas II. Romanov rule ended when Nicholas and his family were placed under arrest
a. Communist texts
Two German revolutionaries, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, originally developed communist theory. The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1883) outlined their philosophic approach. Lenin’s article What Is To Be Done? (1902) detailed a pragmatic plan of action for Communist takeover.
b. Communist theory--class struggle
Karl Marx saw history as a continuous struggle between the "haves" and "have nots" (exploited slaves, serfs, and laborers). The final, projected struggle would take place between capitalists (the "haves") and workers (proletariat, proh-luh-TAYR-ee-uht). Workers would win, and establish a "dictatorship of the proletariat." Class distinctions would die and the perfect system (communism) emplaced. Russian revolutionary Vladimir Lenin advocated a strong, disciplined party--the vanguard of the proletariat--to lead the working class to revolution.
c. October Revolution
On 6 November 1917, Lenin’s revolutionary party (Bolsheviks, BOHL-shuh-veeks) called a strike, staged a coup, and took power. Once in control, they changed their name to communists. This event is called the October Revolution due to calendar differences. Tzar Nicholas and his family were executed in July, 1918.
d. Civil War
Three years of civil war ensued after Communists came to power. The Red Guards (Communists) faced White army forces, made up of former army officers, Tzar supporters, landowners and opposing political parties. Though Great Britain, France, Japan and the United States supported the Whites, Communists won
the conflict.
e. USSR
Lenin became the head of both the government and the Communist Party (the Political Bureau [Politburo]). In January 1923, he changed the name of the country to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) or Soviet Union.
Born Joseph Djugashvili, Stalin was the son of a former Georgian serf. When his mother was widowed in 1890, she sent her son to a church school, with the intent that he become a priest. While in seminary, Stalin joined a secret Marxist
debating society and was expelled from the theological school. He then lived an underground existence, planning strikes and riots.
a. Lenin’ s successor
After Lenin’s death in 1924, a three-year struggle for power occurred between
Stalin and Leon Trotsky (TRAHT-skee, 1879-1940). These two associates of Lenin were key participants in the revolution. Trotsky advocated a world-wide revolution of workers to enable the underdeveloped Communist Russia to succeed. Stalin, on
the other hand, saw world revolution only after Communism was made strong in Russia. Through shrewd political maneuvering, Stalin gained party control, expelled Trotsky and sent him into exile. Agents of Stalin reportedly murdered Trotsky in Mexico in 1940.
b. Central planning
Under a system of five-year plans, Stalin industrialized the state and collectivized Soviet agriculture. Small farms merged into huge collectives. Famine ensued, with estimates of up to 10 million people dying.
c. Purges
From 1935-1941, an era known as the "Great Terror," Stalin’s secret police arrested, tortured, imprisoned, deported or executed millions of people considered
"enemies of the state." Even old Bolsheviks and military leaders came under Stalin’s wrath. A police state, with forced labor/concentration camps (archipelagos--regions cut off from the rest of the world but with its own communications system) flourished.
In 1939, Stalin and Hitler signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop nonaggression agreement, whereby Hitler could invade Poland, unhindered by Russia. Once German forces occupied Poland, secret clauses in the agreement enabled Russia to partition half of Poland. Stalin then moved to gain more land (the Baltic Republics, Moldovia and parts of Finland) to expand interests and create a buffer zone between the Soviet Union and Germany.
Contrary to terms of the Nonaggression Pact, Germany invaded Russia in 1941. Stalin marshaled the people behind him to face Hitler’s armies. He led a nationalist revival by putting aside slogans of class struggle, muffling anti-religious propaganda, restoring the Eastern Orthodox patriarchate, and encouraging faithful church attendees to join the defense of their country.
a. Leningrad (St. Petersburg)
From August 1941 to January 1944, German forces besieged Leningrad. Due to excessively harsh winters, nearly one million Russians died in the resulting cold or starvation.
b. Stalingrad
In 1942, Germans captured the city of Stalingrad (current Volgograd) reducing it to rubble. Led by the Marshal of the Soviet Union, General Georgii Zhukov (ZHOO-kuhf), in February 1943 the Red Army encircled German forces, destroyed them and recaptured Stalingrad. Another Soviet victory during the Battle of Kursk in July 1943 gave strategic drive to the Red Army, enabling them to take initiative for the rest of the war. Though estimates vary, some 18-26 million Soviet citizens died as a direct result of World War II.
Russia emerged from World War II as a superpower. Stalin, desiring to spread communist practice and protect Soviet borders from future invasions, continued to occupy Eastern European countries in which Russia had fought. These satellite states became part of the Soviet bloc of nations. Antagonism arose between the Soviets and Western nations (the Cold War). The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), formed in 1949, sought mutual defense for the United States, Canada and 10 Western European nations.
Taking leadership of the Soviet Union after Stalin’s death, Khrushchev oversaw the formation of the Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact) which arose in response to NATO and West Germany’s formal entry into NATO in 1955. In 1956, Khrushchev denounced Stalin in a "secret speech." Some political prisoners were released as a result. This liberalization led, in part, to a popular revolt in Hungary on 23 October 1956. The Red Army invaded and brutally suppressed this uprising. Khrushchev’s rule alternated between policies of peaceful coexistence and threats. The 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis resulted when President Kennedy sought to prevent deployment of further Soviet missiles in Cuba. Failed agricultural and political reform, in addition to the missile crisis in Cuba, led to Khrushchev’s removal from office in 1964.
Taking Khrushchev’s place in 1964, Brezhnev gave high priority to defense and military power. The "Brezhnev doctrine," used in part to justify the occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1968, bound socialist states together militarily. During this era, Soviets sought to influence third world liberation movements in Vietnam, Nigeria and central Africa, Somalia, Ethiopia, Angola and Afghanistan. The policy of "détente" or relaxing of tensions through negotiation and discussion, also came about under Brezhnev.
Prior to Gorbachev’s taking party control in 1985, the politburo chose two elderly successors for Brezhnev. Both Yuri Andropov (an-DROH-pov) and Konstantin Chernenko (CHERN-yen-koh) died in office after serving only short periods of time.
a. Reforms
In 1986 Gorbachev initiated many reforms to boost the economy and create a better domestic and international climate. Some of these reforms included:
(1) Perestroika (restructuring) Borrowed from capitalism, Gorbachev sought to restructure the economy so production would focus on what people desired to
consume.
(2) Glasnost (openness) Rather than secretive lying within the government, more free channels of expression, movement and openness were fostered.
(3) Demokratizatsia (democratization) Gorbachev advocated multi-candidate elections, effectively ending one-party rule.
b. Chernobyl (cher-NOH-buhl)
A 1986 disaster at a nuclear plant in the Ukraine brought a setback to Soviet nuclear energy programs. The accident, which has repercussions to this day, released radioactive material in the atmosphere of Western Europe as well as Russia. This environmental disaster raised an alarm to both supporters and opponents of nuclear energy.
c. Non-intervention
Revoking the Brezhnev doctrine, no longer would the Soviet Union interfere militarily with East European affairs. As a result, Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Romania, Poland and Hungary all overthrew their communist leaders.
d. Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE)
Soviet force reductions, reduced weaponry in Soviet ally states, and verification measures all became part of the CFE agreement, signed in Paris on 19 November 1990. Along with President Bush, Gorbachev signed the START Treaty in 1991, which reduced strategic nuclear arsenals by 30 percent.
a. Independence overtures by Soviet republics
In 1990-1991, leaders of several Soviet republics began to assert greater self-rule. Some withheld taxes. Others declared that their laws overrode those of the Soviet Union. Boris Yeltsin, elected president of the Russian Republic in June 1991, advocated decentralized power--including that addressing legal matters. Yeltsin backed greater self-determination for the many dispersed Soviet republics.
b. Gorbachev’s loss of popularity
By 1991, a dismal economic picture undermined Gorbachev’s popularity. Boris Yeltsin and others criticized him for the slow pace of his reforms. Hard-line Communists berated him for advocating too many changes.
c. Coup
In August, 1991, high-ranking Communist Party Soviet Union (CPSU) officials attempted a coup, holding Gorbachev prisoner. Yeltsin denounced the rebellion, called for a strike, and led some 50,000 demonstrators near the Russian Parliament. The military, in refusing to use force against the demonstrators, effectively ended the coup. On 21 August, Gorbachev was restored to the presidency, though he resigned as leader of the Communist Party three days later. By 29 August, Parliament voted to cease all Communist Party activities.
d. Gorbachev’s resignation and Soviet Union breakup
On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as president of the USSR. That same month, Boris Yeltsin, meeting in Minsk with the Belarussian chairman of Parliament (Stanislav Shushkevich) and the Ukrainian president (Leonid Kravchuk), signed the Belavezha Accords, which officially dissolved the Soviet Union (26 Dec 1991). The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), made up of all the former Soviet republics except the Balticstates, became a venue for mutual discussion and
cooperation.
a. Economic reform
In January 1992, Russia eliminated state subsidies for goods and
services, allowing prices for common merchandise to soar. Later in the year, Yeltsin and President Bush agreed to massive arms reductions.
b. Privatization
Medium and large state-owned corporations were privatized in 1993. Conservatives and former communists led an impeachment drive against Yeltsin, which he narrowly survived.
c. Parliament unrest
Calling for early elections in September 1993, Yeltsin dissolved Parliament. Parliament in turn deposed Yeltsin. Anti-Yeltsin legislators barricaded themselves in the Parliament building. On 3 October, anti-Yelstin forces rampagedthrough Moscow and barricaded themselves in the Parliament building. Yeltsin ordered tanks to fire on Parliament. Estimates vary, but close to 140 people were killed
and another 150 arrested in the ensuing mayhem.
d. Constitutional reform
The 12 December 1993 elections supported Yeltsin-led constitutional reform. Two houses of a new Russian Parliament were elected--the Federation Council (the upper house) and the State Duma (a 450-member lower house). A strong presidential republic resulted.
e. Chechnya (chech-NYAH)
Government forces set out to quell disturbances in the breakaway republic of Chechnya in December 1994. After heavy fighting, Grozny, the capital, fell in February 1995. On 14 August 1996, rebels embarrassed the military by retaking Grozny. Military leader Alexander Lebed, given broad powers to terminate the conflict by President Yeltsin, negotiated an end to the war on 31 August. By January 1997, the last Russian soldiers left Chechnya.
f. Yeltsin ups and downs
Elections on 17 December 1995 saw Communist gains in parliament. Though in poor health, Yeltsin won a presidential runoff election. On 17 October 1996, he dismissed Alexander Lebed for insubordination. Currently (Aug 1998), Lebed serves as a Siberian province leader. Yeltsin survived a 5 November 1996 quintuple-bypass heart surgery. With revitalized health, Yelstin revamped his cabinet in March of 1997. On 27 May 1997, Russia and NATO signed a "Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation, and Security," paving the way for NATO to admit countries in transition (former Eastern European countries). The "Founding Act" outlined means for frequent Russia/NATO consultation and coordination. It also specified that NATO would not deploy nuclear weapons to new member territories.
Bolsheviks (BOHL-shuh-veeks) Lenin’s revolutionary party. Changed to Communists after the civil war.
Boyar (boo-YAHR) Aristocracy class
Brezhnev, Leonid (BREZH-nef, 1906-1982) Khrushchev’s successor. Authored "Brezhnev doctrine" which bound socialist states together and justified Russian invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. Initiated detente, a relaxing of East-West tensions through negotiation and discussion.
Byzantine (BIZ-ahn-teen) Relating to the Eastern Roman Empire, A.D. 476-1453
Catherine the Great (ruled 1762-1796) Wife of Peter III, she converted to Eastern Orthodoxy, expanded the empire, implemented Russification on captured subjects, and warred against the Ottoman Turks.
Chechnya (chech-NYAH) Area where Russian government forces entered to quell disturbances in December 1994. In Jan 1997, the last Russian soldiers finally left Chechnya.
Chernobyl (cher-NOH-buhl) 1986 nuclear disaster at this Ukraine power plant set back nuclear energy programs in the Soviet Union.
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) All of the former Soviet republics except the Baltic states, who presently form an association for mutual discussion and cooperation.
Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) Force reductions, weaponry in ally states and verification measures as part of an agreement signed in Paris in November 1990.
Crimea (kri-MEE-ah) Peninsula in Russia between the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov.
Cyrillic (suh-RIL-lik) Alphabet introduced by St. Cyril (SIR-ahl) and St. Methodius (mah-THOH-dee-ahs) into Balkan society. Eventually adopted by Russia.
Duma (DOO-muh) Assembly established by Nicholas II to bring about legislative reform.
Glasnost Openness. Free channels of expression, movement and honesty became more tolerated in Soviet government under Gorbachev.
Godunov, Boris (GOD-enohf, 1552-1605) Harsh ruler during the "Time of Troubles" (famine, plague and unrest)
Gorbachev, Mikhail (GOHR-buh-chof, 1931 - ) Reform-minded leader who came into power in 1985 in Russia. Perestroika and Glasnost were two key programs he introduced.
Great Patriotic War Stalin inspired nationalism during World War II to enable Russian people to endure and be victorious in the conflict.
Iaroslav the Wise (yuh-ruh-SLUHF, ruled 1036-1054) Ruler who contributed greatly to Russian cultural development. Responsible for the first legal code
Ivan IV, the Dread (ruled 1533-1584) Married to a Romanov (ROH-mah- nohf), he became unpredictable and tyrannical after his wife died.
Ivan III, the Great (1462-1505) Assumed title of tzar and autocrat in Russia. Effectively eliminated Mongol domination and strengthened ties between Orthodox Eastern Christianity and the tzar
Khrushchev, Nikita (ni-KEE-tah kroosh-CHOF, 1894-1971) Soviet leader who denounced Stalin in a secret speech, oversaw the Cuban missile crisis, and ruled with an alternating policy of coexistence and threat.
Kremlin (KREM-lin) Fortress made of stone
Lebed, Alexander General who was victorious in Chechnya for the Russian forces. Dismissed by Yeltsin, he currently serves as a Siberian province leader.
Lenin, Vladimir (VLAD-ah-mir LEN-in, 1870-1924) Author of What is to be Done?, a pragmatic article on the Communist takeover. Led the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution. Became first Communist Party head in Russia.
Mongols Nomad warriors from central Asia who conquered Russia 1240-1480
Nicholas I, the Iron Tzar (1825-1855) A December revolt caused him to clamp down on freedoms and individual thought. Secret police and Siberian camps became common.
Nicholas II (ruled 1894-1917) Tzar who, though a good family man, was out of touch with domestic issues in the latter part of his rule.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Organization formed in 1949 to seek mutual defense for the United States, Canada and 10 Western nations against the Soviet bloc.
Perestroika Restructuring. Production focused on what people desired to consume, not on state mandated items alone.
Peter the Great (ruled 1689-1725) Western looking tzar who determined to make Russia a Western nation. He reduced the power of the Orthodox Church, expanded the country to warm water ports, and established St. Petersburg, the "window to Europe."
Pogrom (pah-GRUM) Russian devastation which murdered Jewish citizens and burned their homes
Politburo Political Bureau--the Communist Party and Russian Government under Communism
Proletariat (proh-luh-TAYR-ee-uht) Workers, the "have-nots" in Communist theory
Rasputin, Gregory (ras-PYOO-tuhn) Wandering holy man who shared Russian power with Nicholas II’s wife Alexandra while Nicholas was on the Front.
Romanov, Mikhail (mi-khi-EEL ROH-mah-nohf, ruled 1613-1645)
Restored law and order to Russian state, and established a dynasty lasting over 300 years. Serfs--peasants with no rights--came into being under his rule.
Rurik (ROOR-ik) Varangian prince who began rule over Kievan Russia in A.D. 862
Soviets Russian word for councils
Stalin, Joseph (STAHL-uhn, 1879-1953) Son of former serf, theological student turned Marxist who led Russia for nearly 30 years.
Suvorov, Alexander (ah-leh-KSAHN-dehr soo-VOH-rof, 1729-1800)
Regarded as the ablest military commander Russia ever produced for his leading of the forced retreat in 1799-1800 and other exploits.
Trotsky, Leon (TRAHT-skee, 1879-1940) Associate of Lenin who believed all underdeveloped lands needed a Communist revolution. Only then would the Russian revolution succeed. Killed by Stalin’s people in Mexico in 1940.
Tzar (zahr) Russian ruler who owes allegiance to no one
Varangians (vah-RAN-jee-ahns) Early warrior traders, related to the Vikings, who in A.D. 862 received an invitation from Novgorod to rule their area. Rus is another name for Varangian
Vladimir I (vlah-DEE-mir, @956-1015) Grandson of Rurik who ruled Kiev from 980-1015. Under Vladimir, Russia adopted Eastern Orthodox Christianity.
Warsaw Pact Warsaw Treaty Organization which arose in response to NATO. Consisted of Russian satellite nations
Yeltsin, Boris Russia’s first president after the fall of Communism.
Zhukov, Georgii (ZHOO-kuhf) General and Marshal of the Soviet Union who led the Soviet armies to victory at Stalingrad and Kursk, giving them the initiative for the remainder of the war.
Multiple Choice. Run the mouse over your answer if you chose correctly the answer will change to blue bold italics "like this".
1. _____ Prince Vladimir I was won over by Eastern Orthodoxy in
part because of its
a. emphasis given to right doctrine.
b. splendor and beauty of worship.
c. method of baptism.
2. _____ One impact of Eastern Orthodox Christianity on early
Russian leadership was to
a. emphasize the importance of free choice and independence
of the masses.
b. give divine approval to a legitimate ruler’s position.
c. popularize long beards as this was the style of the
patriarchs.
3. _____ The first Russian ruler to ascribe to himself the name
tzar (a ruler who owes allegiance to no one) was
a. Iaroslav the Wise.
b. Ivan the Great.
c. Boris Godunov.
4. _____ The tzar who reopened Russia to the West, and
established a Russian city designed to be a "window to Europe"
was
a. Vladimir I.
b. Peter the Great.
c. Catherine the Great
5. _____ Under __________, who originally was a German princess,
Russification--where subjected peoples were forced to adopt the
Russian language--became a policy.
a. Zoe, wife of Ivan the Great
b. Catherine the Great
c. Raisa Gorbachev
6. _____ The Russian army leader, regarded by some as the "ablest
military commander Russia ever produced" is
a. General Alexander Suvorov.
b. General Alexander Lebed.
c. General Georgii Zhukov.
7. _____ Under Nicholas I, the Iron Tzar,
a. the Russian iron ore industry tripled.
b. personal freedoms and individual thought were suppressed.
c. vitamin and mineral deficiencies in the Russian diet were
supplemented by state-run pharmacies.
8. _____ One result of the completion of the Trans-Siberian
railroad in 1903 was
a. the Russian war with Japan, which Russia lost.
b. increased dialogue and understanding between China and
Russia.
c. a boost to the Russian economy because of American
dollars paid for train tickets by globetrotting turn-of-
the-century college students.
9. _____ Two German revolutionaries who developed Communist
theory were
a. Marx and Engels.
b. Trotsky and Stalin.
c. Abbott and Costello.
10. _____ In Communist theory, another name for the workers who
would eventually win over the "haves" is
a. serfs.
b. proletariat.
c. capitalists
11. _____ Leon Trotsky advocated a __________ revolution to
enable the Communist experiment to succeed.
a. Russian only
b. world-wide
c. Stalin led
12. _____ During the era known as the __________, Stalin’s secret
police purged, arrested, tortured, imprisoned, deported or
executed millions considered "enemies of the state."
a. Great Terror
b. Archipelago Distress
c. Time of Troubles
13. _____ In identifying World War II as a Great Patriotic War
for Russia, Stalin treated the Russian Orthodox Church
a. with increased censorship, suppression and
heavy-handedness.
b. as a source for renewed national patriotism and pride.
c. to new onslaughts of anti-religious propaganda.
14. _____ Though estimates vary, how many Soviet citizens died as
a result of World War II?
a. Between 6-10 million
b. Between 10-18 million
c. Between 18-26 million
15. _____ The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO),
established in 1949, sought defense for
a. Soviet bloc nations against the West.
b. the U.S., Canada and 10 Western nations against the
Soviet bloc.
c. all peoples north of the 50 degree latitude region (the
Cold War Zone).
16. _____ What two events occurred under Nikita Khrushchev’s
rule?
a. Cuban Missile Crisis and "secret speech" denouncing
Stalin oppression
b. Detente and the occupation of Czechoslovakia
c. Establishment of both the Warsaw Pact and NATO
17. _____ Brezhnev’s policy of détente sought to
a. justify Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1968.
b. influence liberation movements in Vietnam, Central Africa and Afghanistan.
c. relax tensions between Russia and the West through discussion and negotiation.
18. _____ Under Gorbachev’s Perestroika (restructuring)
government, he sought to
a. create an atmosphere of openness and freedom of
expression.
b. focus production on what products people wanted to buy.
c. limit the power of the Russian Orthodox priests of
Moscow.
19. _____ The Commonwealth of Independent States is made up of
a. all the former Soviet republics.
b. all the former Soviet republics except the Baltic states.
c. the current provinces of the Russian Federation.
20. _____ President Boris Yeltsin’s rule in Russia could best be
described as
a. successfully developing a strong economy.
b. many ups and downs.
c. stable, encouraging little internal rebellion or unrest.
True or False. Run the mouse over the question. If the answer answer is "True" the whole question will turn to green bold italics..."like this". If the answer is "False" it will turn to red bold..."like this".
1. _____ Byzantine culture--that of the Eastern Roman Empire (476-1453)--was introduced in Russia by the Eastern Orthodox Church.
2. _____ Under Mongol rule, Russians kept their language and many customs, but turned increasingly inward, suspicious of foreign ideas and ways.
3. _____ Early in his reign, Peter the Great visited Western Europe, disguised as a sailor.
4. _____ The Crimea region stretches from the Caspian to the Aral Sea.
5. _____ Gregory Rasputin, a wandering holy man, held power in St. Petersburg, along with Nicholas II’s wife Alexandra, while Nicholas was on the Front during World War I.
6. _____ Petrograd was the name used for St. Petersburg during World War I, due to anti-German sentiment.
7. _____ Friedrich Engels' work What is to be Done?, detailed a pragmatic plan of action for Communist takeover in Russia.
8. _____ The original name of Lenin’s revolutionary party was the Bolsheviks.
9. _____ During the Red Guard/White Army civil war in Russia after World War I, Great Britain, France, Japan and the United States supported the Red Guard.
10. _____ Joseph Stalin attended a theological seminary in his youth.
Chadwick, Owen. A History of Christianity. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995.
Famighetti, Robert, ed. The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1998. Mahwah, New Jersey: World Almanac Books, 1998.
Kaiser, Phillip. Country Profile: Russia. Regional Security Division, National Security Studies and Strategies Group, Science Applications International Corporation, Contract DTOS59-96-D-00425, 15 August 1997.
New Encyclopedia Britannica, Macropaedia, Volume 16. "Russia and the Soviet Union, History of," pp. 39-89, Chicago, Helen Hemingway Benton, 1975.
Riasanovsky, Nicholas. A History of Russia. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Richmond, Yale. From Nyet to Da--Understanding the Russians. Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural Press, 1995.
Sensitive, well organized, helpful treatment of cultural traits of Russian peoples. Recommended by the State Department’s Overseas Briefing Center. The author gears his comments to Americans throughout the text.
Slatter, Irene. The Simple Guide to Customs and Etiquette in Russia. Kent, England: Global Books, 1995.
Smith, Hedrick. The Russians. New York: Ballantine, 1976.
Smith, Hedrick. The New Russians. New York: Random House, 1990.
Welty, Paul Thomas and Miriam Greenblatt. The Human Expression--World Regions and Cultures. Westerville, Ohio: Glencoe Division, Macmillan/McGraw-Hill, 1992.
Zickel, Raymond E. Soviet Union--A Country Study. Washington, D.C.: Headquarters, Department of the Army, DA Pam 550-95, 1991
Channon, John with Robert Hudson. Penguin Historical Atlas of Russia. Swanson Graphics Limited, 1995.
Historical maps, pictures and accompanying text gives an excellent overview of Russian history and culture. Inviting format is patterned, in part, after National Geographic presentations.
Edwards, Mike. "A Comeback for the Cossacks." National Geographic, Nov. 1998, pp. 34-71.
Hughes, Lindsey. Russia in the Age of Peter the Great. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998.
Raymer, Steve. St. Petersburg. Atlanta: Turner Publishing, 1994.
Rutherfurd, Edward. Russka--The Novel of Russia. New York: Ivy Books, 1991.
Sajer, Guy. The Forgotten Soldier. McLean, VA: Brassey’s, 1990.
Classic World War II autobiography of life on the Russian front.
Thomas, Timothy. "Russian ‘Lessons Learned’ in Bosnia." Military Review, Sep-Oct 1996.
Zwingle, Erla. "Catherine the Great." National Geographic, Sep 1998, pp. 92-117.
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